Iowa State University

Meg Gerrard

The most significant findings from my research over the last 10 years all have to do with a variety of ognitions related to adolescent health risk behaviors such as drinking, smoking and reckless driving. We have been investigating how adolescents think about the possibility that their behavior will lead to negative outcomes. In other words, when adolescents drink or smoke, what are their thoughts about the potential dangers associated with these behaviors, and how do these thoughts relate to their past and future behavior? A number of findings are worth noting.

First, even kids as young as 10 are aware that if they engage in a risk behavior (e.g., if they drink), they will increase the likelihood that they will suffer negative consequences of that behavior. However, like adults, adolescents distort this information when they apply it to themselves — they think that they are less likely than the average person to suffer these negative consequences. This optimistic bias is  important because perceptions of vulnerability to negative consequences influence future risk behavior.  For example the more detrimental adoles-cents  think drinking would be to their health, the less likely they are to drink. 

Another important finding from this research is that adolescents’ perceptions of their personal vulnerability reflect their risk behavior. For example, the more an adolescent drives after drinking, the more he is likely to have a distorted perception of the probability that his driving under the influence will result in an accident.  Thus, there is a reciprocal relationship between risk behavior and risk perceptions, such that  perceptions of invulnerability are associated with the onset of risk behaviors, but once adolescents initiate risk behaviors, they distort their perceptions of the likelihood that these behaviors will result in adverse effects.

As adolescents initiate various risk behaviors they tend to engage in biased thinking about two other attitudes about those behaviors: estimates of the prevalence of the behavior among their peers and concerns about the health and safety consequences of the behavior. These two attitudes follow patterns that are similar to the pattern for perceptions of vulnerability: Initially, the more adolescents think that others are engaging in a risk behavior, the more likely they are to try that behavior. However, once they initiate a risk behavior (e.g., start smoking), they increase their estimates of the number of their peers who are doing it.

Likewise, the more concerned they are about the potential negative consequences of a specific risk behavior, the less likely they are to try it. But once they have experimented with the behavior, they decrease the amount they think about its potential negative consequences, an effect we call the “Scarlet O’Hara effect.”

There are two reasons we think that these findings are important. One is that these attitudes toward specific risk behaviors are related to escalation of those behaviors. We find that the adolescents who are most successful in convincing themselves that a specific behavior is common and most successful at putting thoughts about its potential consequences out of their minds, are most likely to further escalate their involvement in that behavior. The second reason is that these attitudes and biases are malleable. Thus, the next step in this area is to design and test interventions that reduce these biases and break this spiral of reciprocal relations between risk behavior and risk promoting attitudes and biases about those behaviors.

In another line of research, we have conducted a series of studies designed to extend previous research on the effects of parental and peer influence on adolescent alcohol consumption. In these studies we have replicated earlier research indicating that peer influence is a significant factor in determining adolescent drinking. This research, however, also demonstrates that parents can influence their children’s drinking in important ways. First, adolescents are less likely to associate with peers who drink if their parents do not drink, and if their parents are emotionally supportive and do not engage in harsh disciplinary behaviors. Second, association with peers who drink significantly erodes the impact of parental values on adolescents. That is, parents’ attitudes toward adolescent alcohol have significantly more impact if the adolescent is not associating with peers who drink. Furthermore, this research indicates that the process of becoming an adolescent drinker involves an active rejection of parents’ influence rather than a passive movement away from parents’ attitudes and beliefs — a process that is accelerated by association with peers who drink.

Education

B.A., University of Texas at Austin, 1970

Clinical Internship, Austin State Hospital and University of Texas Counseling and Psychological Services Center, APA Approved, 1973-1974

Ph.D., University of Texas at Austin, 1974

Professional Memberships and Honors

Licensed Psychologist, Texas and Kansas

Fellow, American Psychological Association, Divisions 27 & 34

Fellow, American Psychological Society

Fellow, Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues

Member, Society of Experimental Social Psychology

Member, Society of Behavioral Medicine

Pew Foundation Mid-Career Fellow in Health Policy, 1990-1991

Iowa State University Foundation Award for Mid-Career Achievement in Research, 1991

Ad Hoc Reviewer for numerous journals including: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology; Journal of Personality; American Journal of Community Psychology; Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin; Health Psychology; Basic and Applied Social Psychology; Developmental Psychology; Journal of Abnormal Psychology; Psychological Bulletin; Psychology and Health; Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology; Child Development; Journal of Studies on Alcohol; Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology

National Grant Review Panels

         NICCHD (Adolescent Pregnancy) 1984

         NIDA (AIDS Research) 1987

         NIMH (Prevention Research Center) 1995

         NIH (Community Prevention and Control Special Emphasis Panel) 1995-1997

         Economic and Social Research Council (Canada) 1998

         NIH (AIDS and Related Research) 1998

         Dutch AIDS Fund 1999

         NSF (ad hoc member 2000)

         NCI (Center of Excellence in Cancer Communications Research) 2001

 Extramural Research Support

Summer Faculty Research Fellowship, Office of Naval Research, 1983 and 1984.
$6,500 per summer.

Predicting pregnancy attrition in women Marines, Battelle Institute 1983-1984. $4,285.

Predicting pregnancy in first term women Marines, Office of Naval Research,
1985-1989. $230,392.

Social learning analysis of smoking cessation clinics (Co-PI), National Institute on
Drug Abuse, 1986-1987. (PI - F.X. Gibbons). $75,344

The impact of downward social comparison on self-perception (Co-PI), National
Science Foundation, 1988-1990. (PI - F.X. Gibbons). $56,579.

Economic stress, perceived vulnerability, and risk behaviors in rural adolescents,
National Institute of Mental Health, 1990-1996. (Co-PI - F.X. Gibbons). $1,432,990.

Psychosocial predictors of rural adolescent alcohol use, National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 1995-2000. (Co-PI - F.X. Gibbons). $1,422,318.

Psychosocial factors and health risk among low SES children (Co-PI), National Institute of Mental Health, 1995-2000. $1,817,237. (PI - F.X. Gibbons).

Self esteem, positive illusions and health cognitions, National Research Scientist Award, National Cancer Institute, 1998-1999. $47,265.

Health Cognitions Conference (Co-PI - F.X. Gibbons). National Science Foundation, 1999-

2001. $11,283.

Preventing alcohol use among African American youths (Iowa State University PI). National

Institute of Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse, 2000-2005. $343,588 (dual-site project PI - G. Brody; total grant $3,126,000).

Factors affecting African American youths’ health behavior (Co-PI). National Institute of Mental Health, 2001-2006. $2,898,211. (PI – F.X. Gibbons).

Vulnerability and protective factors for early onset (Co-I). National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2001-2006. $3,729,731. (PI = Thomas Wills).

Pending Proposals

Social psychological interventions for UV protection (PI Iowa subcontract); National Cancer Institute, 2002-2006. Iowa subcontract = $465,366 (PI = Heike Mahler).

Journal Articles

Meyer, M., & Gerrard, M. (1977). Graduate training in community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 5, 155-164.

Gerrard, M. (1977). Sex guilt in abortion patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 708.

Gerrard, M. (1980). Sex guilt and attitudes toward sex in sexually active and sexually inactive college co-eds. Journal of Personality Assessment, 44, 258-261.

Denney, D.R., & Gerrard, M. (1981). Behavioral treatment of primary dysmenorrhea: A review. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 19, 303-312.

Frisch, M.B., & Gerrard, M. (1981). Natural helping systems: A survey of Red Cross volunteers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 567-579.

Gerrard, M. (1982). Sex, sex guilt, and contraceptive use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 153-158.

Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (1982). Sexual experience, sex guilt, and sexual moral reasoning. Journal of Personality, 50, 345-359.

Gerrard, M., McCann, L., & Fortini, M. (1983). Prevention of unwanted pregnancy. American Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 153-168.

Lewis, R.J., Wasserman, E., Denney, N.W., & Gerrard, M. (1983). The etiology and treatment of primary dysmenorrhea: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 3, 371-389.

Geis, B.D., & Gerrard, M. (1984). Predicting male and female contraceptive behavior: A discriminant analysis of high, moderate, and low contraceptive effectiveness groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 669- 680.

Goldfarb, L., Dykens, E., & Gerrard, M. (1985). The Goldfarb Fear of Fat Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 329-332.

Metzler-Brennan, E., Lewis, R.J., & Gerrard, M. (1985). Childhood antecedents of women's masculinity, femininity, and career role choices. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 371-382.

Thissen, D., Steinberg, L., & Gerrard, M. (1986). Beyond group-mean differences: The concept of item bias. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 118-128.

Welch, R., Gerrard, M., & Huston, A. (1986). Sex-type and reaction to success/failure: An examination of mediating variables. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10, 221-233.

Locke, T.P., Johnson, G.M., Kirigin-Ramp, K., Atwater, J.D., & Gerrard, M. (1986). An evaluation of a juvenile education program in a state penitentiary. Evaluation Review, 10, 281-298.

Kinnaird, K., & Gerrard M. (1986). Attitudes about marriage, divorce, and premarital sexual activity as a function of parents' marital status. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 757-765.

Dykens, E.M., & Gerrard, M. (1986). Bulimia: Psychological profiles of bulimics repeat dieters, and controls. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 283-288.

Lewis, R.J., Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (1986). Sexual experience and recall of sexual vs. non-sexual information. Journal of Personality, 54, 676-693.

Gerrard, M. (1987). Sex, sex guilt, and contraceptive use revisited: Trends in the 1980s. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 975-980.

Pinney, E., Gerrard, M., & Denney, N. (1987). The Sexual Satisfaction Inventory: Its development and correlates in women. Journal of Sex Research, 23, 233-251.

Goldfarb, L., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Plante, T. (1988). Attitudes toward sex, arousal, and the retention of contraceptive information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 634-641.

Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (1989). Effects of upward and downward social comparison on mood states. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 8, 14- 31. 

Gerrard, M., & Reis, T.J. (1989). Retention of contraceptive and AIDS information in the classroom. Journal of Sex Research, 26, 315-323.

Gerrard, M., Breda, C., & Gibbons, F.X. (1990). Gender effects in couples' sexual decision-making and contraceptive use. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 449-464.

Gerrard, M., & Warner, T.D. (1990). Antecedents of pregnancy among women Marines. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 80, 1-15. (Invited manuscript)

Gerrard, M., Kurylo, M., & Reis, T.J. (1991). Self-esteem, erotophobia, and retention of contraceptive information in the classroom. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 368-379.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Warner, T.D. (1991). Effect of reviewing risk-relevant behavior on perceived vulnerability among women Marines. Health Psychology, 10, 173-179.

Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., Lando, H.A., & McGovern, P.G. (1991). Social comparison and smoking cessation: The role of the "Typical Smoker". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27, 239-258.

Boney McCoy, S., Gibbons, F.X., Reis, T., Gerrard, M., Luus, C.A.E., & Sufka, A.V.W. (1992). Perceptions of smoking risk as a function of smoking status. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 469-488.

Reis, T.J., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (1993). Social comparison and the pill: Reactions to upward and downward social comparison of contraceptive behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 13-20.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Boney McCoy, S. (1993). Emotional inhibition of effective contraception. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 6, 73-88.

Gerrard, M., & Warner, T.D. (1994). A comparison of women Marine's and college women's HIV-relevant behaviors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 959-980.

Gibbons, F.X., Benbow, C.P., & Gerrard, M. (1994). From top dog to bottom half: Social comparison strategies in response to poor performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 638-652.

Gerrard, M., & Luus, C.A.E. (1995). Judgments of vulnerability to pregnancy: The role of risk factors and individual differences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 160-171.

Gibbons, F.X., Helweg-Larsen, M., & Gerrard, M. (1995). Prevalence estimates and adolescent risk behavior: Cross-cultural differences in social influence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 107-121.

Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., & Boney McCoy, S. (1995). Prototype perception predicts (lack of) pregnancy prevention. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 85-93.

Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (1995). Predicting young adults’ health risk behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 505-517.

Benthin, A., Slovic, P., Moran, P., Severson, H., Mertz, C.K., & Gerrard, M. (1995). Adolescent health-threatening and health enhancing behaviors: A study of word association and imagery. Journal of Adolescent Health, 17, 143-152.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons F.X., & Bushman, B.J. (1996). The relation between perceived vulnerability to HIV and precautionary sexual behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 390-409.

Smith, G.E., Eggleston, T.J., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (1996). Sexual attitudes, cognitive associative networks, and perceived vulnerability to unplanned pregnancy. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 88-102.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Benthin A., & Hessling, R.M. (1996). A longitudinal study of the reciprocal nature of risk behaviors and cognitions in adolescents: What you do shapes what you think and vice versa. Health Psychology, 15, 344-354.

Smith, G.E., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (1997). Self-esteem and the relation between risk behavior and perceived vulnerability. Health Psychology, 16, 137-146.

Blanton, H., Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., Conger, K.J., & Smith, G.E. (1997). The role of family and peers in the development of prototypes associated with health risks. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 1-18.

Blanton, H., & Gerrard, M. (1997). Effect of sexual motivation on the perceived riskiness of a sexual encounter: There must be fifty ways to justify a lover. Health Psychology, 16, 374-379.

Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., Ouellette, J.A., & Burzette, R. (1998). Cognitive antecedents to adolescent health risk: Discriminating between behavioral intention and behavioral willingness. Psychology and Health, 13, 319-339.

Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., Blanton, H., & Russell, D.W. (1998). Reasoned action and social reaction: Willingness and intention as independent predictors of health risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1164-1181.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Zhao, L., Russell, D.W., & Reis-Bergan, M. (1999). The effects of peers’ alcohol consumption on parental influence: A cognitive mediational model. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 13, 32-44.

Boney McCoy, S., Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (1999). Self-esteem, compensatory self-enhancement, and the consideration of health risk. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 954-965.

Ouellette, J.A., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Reis-Bergan, M. (1999). Parents, peers, and prototypes: Antecedents of adolescent alcohol expectancies, alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related life problems. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 13, 183-197.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Reis-Bergan, M. (1999). The effect of communication on risk perceptions: The significance of individual differences Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 25, 94-100.

Reis-Bergan, M., Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., & Ybema, J.F. (2000). The impact of reminiscence on socially active elderly women’s reactions to social comparisons. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 22, 223-234.

Wills, T.A., Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., & Brody, G.H. (2000). Protection and vulnerability processes relevant for early onset of substance use: A test among African-American children. Health Psychology, 19, 253-263.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Reis-Bergan, M. (2000). Self-esteem and self-serving health cognitions: Implications for those who engage in risky behavior. Journal of Personality, 68, 1177-1201.

Gibbons, F.X., Blanton, H., Gerrard, M., Buunk, B., & Eggleston, T.J. (2000). Does social comparison make a difference? Optimism as a moderator of the impact of comparison level on outcome. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 637-648.

Blanton, H., Vanden Eijnden, R.J.J.M., Buunk, B.P., Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., & Bakker, A. (2001). Accentuate the Negative: Social Images in the Prediction and Promotion of Condom Use. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 274 - 295.

Brody, G.H., Ge, X., Conger, R., Gibbons, F.X., Murry, V.M., Gerrard, M., & Simmons, R.L. (2001). The influence of neighborhood disadvantage, collective socialization, and parenting on African American children’s affiliation with deviant peers. Child Development, 72, 1231-1246.

Thornton, B., Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (2002). Risk perceptions and prototype perception: Independent processes predicting risk behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 986-999.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Vande Lune, L.S., Pexa, N., & Gano, M. (2002). Adolescents’ substance-related risk perceptions: Antecedents, mediators, and consequences. Risk, Decision, and Policy, 7, 175-191.

Gibbons, F.X., Lane, D., Gerrard, M., Reis-Bergan, M., Lautrup, C., Pexa N., & Blanton, H. (2002). Comparison level preferences after performance: Is downward comparison theory still useful? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 865- 880.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Reis-Bergan, M., Trudeau, L., Vande Lune, L., & Buunk, B.P. (2002). Health cognitions and adolescent alcohol consumption: Inhibitory effects of drinker and non-drinker prototypes. Health Psychology, 21, 601-609.

Gibbons, F.X., Lane, D., Gerrard, M., Pomery, E.,&  Lautrup, C. (in press). Drinking and driving: A prospective assessment of the relation between risk cognitions and risk behavior. Risk, Decision, and Policy.

Brody, G.H., Ge, X., Murry, V.M., Simons, R.L., Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., & Conger, R., (in press). Neighborhood disadvantage moderates associations of parenting and older sibling problem attitudes and behavior with conduct disorders in African American children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

Mahler, H.I., Kulik, J.A., Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (in press). Effects of a UV image and photoaging information on the sun protection behaviors of southern California college students and beachgoers.

Manuscripts Submitted/Under Review

Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., Wills, T.A., Trudeau, L., Brody, G., & Conger, R. (under review). The effects of perceived discrimination, parenting and context on substance use images and willingness in African American adolescents.

Ouellette, J.A., Hessling, R., Gibbons, F.X., Reis-Bergan, M.J., & Gerrard, M. (under review). Prototypes vs. possible selves: Image consideration as health promotion.

Brody, G.H., Ge, X., Conger, R., Gibbons, F.X., Murry, V.M., Gerrard, M., & Simons, R.L., (under review). The influence of neighborhood disadvantage, collective socialization, and parenting on African American children’s affiliation with deviant peers. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology.

Books

Williams, M., Gerrard, M., & Oliver, J. (1977). Women in Management: A Bibliography. Austin, Texas: University of Texas.

Gerrard, M., Oliver, J., & Williams, M. (Eds.). (1976). Proceedings: Conference on Women in Management. Austin, Texas: University of Texas.

Rickel, A., Gerrard, M., & Iscoe, I. (Eds.). (1984). Social and Psychological Problems of Women: Prevention and Crisis Intervention. New York: McGraw-Hill. (Also published as a special issue of Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 1985).

Chapters

Oliver, J., Gerrard, M., & Williams, M. (1976). Management training for women. In M. Kelly, & M. Lauderdale (Eds.), Social Work Continuing Education Yearbook, 1974-75. Austin, Texas: University of Texas.

Gerrard, M. (1976). Women, their own worst enemies? In M. Gerrard, J. Oliver, & M. Williams (Eds.), Proceedings: Conference on Women in Management. Austin, Texas: University of Texas.

Gerrard, M. (1977). Intervention and prevention: Systems analysis and organizational dynamics. In I. Iscoe, B.L. Bloom, & C.D. Spielberger (Eds.), Community Psychology in Transition. Washington, D. C.: Hemisphere.

Gerrard, M., McCann, L., & Geis, B.D. (1984). Antecedents and prevention of unwanted pregnancy. In A. Rickel, M. Gerrard, & I. Iscoe (Eds.), Social and Psychological Problems of Women: Prevention and Crisis Intervention. New York: Hemisphere.

Also published in Mental Health Nursing, 5, 85-99, 1983.

Rickel, A., Forsberg, L.K., Gerrard, M., & Iscoe, I. (1984). New directions for women: Moving beyond the 80's. In A. Rickel, M. Gerrard, & I. Iscoe (Eds.), Social and Psychological Problems of Women: Prevention and Crisis Intervention. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Also published as a special issue of Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 5, 301-312, 1983.

Gerrard, M. (1987). Emotional and cognitive barriers to effective contraception: Are males and females really different? In K. Kelley (Ed.), Females, Males, and Sexuality. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (1991). Downward social comparison and coping with threat. In J.M. Suls & T.A Wills (Eds.), Social Comparison: Contemporary Theory and Application (pp. 317-345). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Warner, T.D., & Smith, G.E. (1993). Perceived vulnerability to AIDS and AIDS preventive behavior: A critical review of the evidence. In J. Pryor and G. Reeder, (Eds.), The Social Psychology of HIV Infection (pp. 59-84). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hedges, T.J., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Smith, G.E. (1995). Psychosocial factors affecting rural adolescent alcohol use. In R.R. Watson (Ed.), Alcohol and Drug Abuse During Pregnancy and Childhood (pp. 37-63). New York, NY: Humana Press.

Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (1997). Health images and their effects on health behavior. In B. Buunk & F.X. Gibbons (Eds.), Health, Coping and Well-being: Perspectives from Social Comparison Theory (pp. 63-94), Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.

Gerrard, M. (2000). Joys and limitations of interdisciplinary research. In J. Bancroft (Ed.), The Role of Theory in Sex Research. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., Ouelette, J., & Burzette, B. (2000). Cognitive antecedents to adolescent health risk: Behavioral intention vs. behavioral willingness. In P. Norman, C. Abraham & M. Conner (Eds.), Understanding and Changing Health Behaviour: From Health Beliefs to Self-regulation. (pp. 137-164). Harwood Publishers.

Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., & Lane, D.J. (in press). A social-reaction model of adolescent health risk. In J.M. Suls & K.A. Wallston (Eds.) Social psychological foundations of health and illness. Oxford, U.K: Blackwell.

Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (in press).  Reactance or social reaction?  Why don’t kids just say “no?”  In R. Wright, J. Greenberg, & S. Brehm (Eds.) A festschrift for Jack Brehm.  Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum & Associates. Lane, D.J.,

Gibbons, F.X., Blanton, H.C., Gerrard, M., Reis-Bergan, M.J., & Buunk, B.P. (in preparation). The impact of comparison level on performance. In F. Columbus (Ed.) Advances in Psychology Research. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Gano, M. (in press). Adolescents’ risk perceptions and behavioral willingness: Implications for intervention. In D. Romer (Ed.) Reducing Adolescent Risk: Toward and Integrated Approach. Newbury, Ca: Sage Publications.

Gibbons, F. X., & Gerrard, M. (in press).  Social psychology. In A. Christensen, R. Martin, & J. Smyth (Eds.) Health Psychology. New York, NY: MacMillan Reference.

Technical Reports and Reviews

David, H., Gerrard, M., & Niedhart, A. (1978). Youth in Trouble: Problems, Issues and Programs in Texas, (Technical Report) LBJ School of Public Affairs, University of Texas.

Gerrard, M., Miller, S., & Lubin, B. (1982). Community Oriented Internship and Field Placement Opportunities, (Manual) Division 27, APA.

Gerrard, M. (1984). Predicting pregnancy, attrition, and pregnancy attrition in first term women Marines. Battelle Institute.

Gerrard, M., & Royle, M.H. (1985). Predicting pregnancy and pregnancy attrition in first-term Marine Corps women. Navy Personnel Research and Development Center, San Diego, CA., NPRDC TR 85-32.

Royle, M.H., Molof, M.J., Winchell, J.D., & Gerrard, M. (1986). Development of a pilot sex education program for enlisted Marines. Navy Personnel Research and Development Center, San Diego, CA., NPRDC TR 86-9.

Gerrard, M. (1989). Antecedents of pregnancy and pregnancy attrition in first-term women Marines. Technical Report ONR-89-1, Iowa State University.

Convention Presentations and Invited Colloquia

Denney, D.R., & Gerrard, M. (1979). Behavioral treatments of dysmenorrhea: Potentialities for self-control. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M., & Denney, D.R. (1979). Pain management training in the reduction of dysmenorrhea. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M., & Eason, M. (1980). Sex differences in self presentation. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (1981). Sex guilt and moral development. APA Annual Convention.

McCann, L., & Gerrard M. (1981). Facilitating contraceptive use. APA Annual Convention.

Geis, B.D., & Gerrard, M. (1982). Predicting effective contraception in males and females. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M., & Lubin, B. (1982). Field training for community psychologists: A comparison of APA approved and non-APA approved internships. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M. (1983). Prevention of unplanned pregnancy: A public policy analysis. Invited colloquium. University of Missouri at Kansas City.

Gerrard, M., McCann, L., & Geis, B.D. (1983). Antecedents and prevention of unplanned pregnancy. APA Annual Convention.

Metzler-Brennan, E., Lewis, R., & Gerrard, M. (1983). Childhood antecedents of women's masculinity, femininity and career role choices. APA Annual Convention.

Dykens, E., & Gerrard, M. (1983). Antecedents and correlates of bulimia. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M. (1983). Planning for educational interventions: An example from sex education. Iowa Educational Research and Evaluation Association Annual Convention.

Lewis, R.L., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (1984). Experience-based schemata and recall of sexual vs. nonsexual information. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M., Royle, M., & Molof, M. (1984). Predicting unplanned pregnancy in women Marines. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M. (1984). Unplanned pregnancy in U.S. college women: Defining the "At Risk" group. Invited colloquium. University of Heidelberg.

Pinney, E., Gerrard, M., & Denney, N. (1985). Correlates and antecedents of sexual satisfaction as measured by the Pinney Sexual Satisfaction Inventory. American Association of Behavior Therapists Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Sharp, J. (1985). Social comparison in a self help group for bulimics. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M. (1985). Sexual behavior and contraceptive use in the 80s. Invited colloquium. Drake University.

Pinney, E.M., & Gerrard, M. (1986). Dietary variations among binge-purge bulimics, binge-only bulimics, and non-bingeing dieters. Southwestern Psychological Association Annual Meeting.

Goldfarb, L., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (1986). Emotional orientation to sex and contraceptive information retention in women. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M. (1987). Emotional inhibition of effective contraception. Invited paper. Midwestern Psychological Association Annual Meeting.

Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (1987). Recall error as a form of downward comparison. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Breda, C.R. (1987). Factors affecting couples' sexual moral reasoning and contraceptive choices. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M., & Reis, T. (1988). Retention of contraceptive and AIDS information in the classroom. Midwestern Psychological Association Annual Meeting.

Gerrard, M., & Sufka, A.V. (1988). Does erotophobia predict sexual and contraceptive behavior in non-college populations? Midwestern Psychological Association Annual Meeting.

Gerrard, M. (1988). Perceived vulnerability to unplanned pregnancy and AIDS. Invited presentation. Nags Head Conference on Social Processes in Adjustment and Health.

Boney McCoy, S., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Luus, C.A.E., Reis, T., & Von Wald, A. (1989). Perceptions of health risks associated with smoking status in a community sample. Midwestern Psychological Association Annual Meeting.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Warner, T.D. (March, 1990). Comparison of women Marines' and college women's AIDS preventive behaviors. Society for the Scientific Study of Sex, Annual Western Region Meeting.

Reis, T., Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (May, 1990). Effects of social comparison in simulated contraceptive discussion groups. Midwestern Psychological Association Annual Meeting.

Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (June, 1990). Gender influence in decisions about sex: Women are calling the shots. APS Annual Convention.

Warner, T.D., & Gerrard, M. (June, 1990). Evidence of selection focus and moderating influence of perceived control in risk perceptions. APS Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Warner, T.D. (August, 1990). Effects of reviewing risk- relevant behavior on perceived vulnerability. APA Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M. (1990). Effects of reviewing risk relevant behavior on perceived vulnerability to pregnancy and AIDS. Invited colloquium. University of California at Los Angeles.

Gerrard, M. (1991). Emotional interference with learning contraceptive and AIDS information. Invited colloquium. University of California at Los Angeles.

Luus, C.A.E., & Gerrard, M. (May, 1991). Cognitive processes and individual differences in judgments of perceived likelihood of pregnancy. Midwestern Psychological Association Annual Meeting, Chicago.

Warner T.D., & Gerrard, M. (June, 1991). Personality correlates and stability of risk perceptions and the optimistic bias. APS Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M. (October, 1991). Self-esteem, erotophobia, and retention of AIDS and contraceptive information. Invited colloquium. North Dakota State University.

Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (March, 1992). Economic and psychological predictors of adolescent health risk behaviors and use of mental health services in rural America. Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues Conference on Health Policy, Washington, D.C. (This paper won the conference award for a Theory/Research presentation.)

Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (July, 1992). The role of perceived vulnerability in AIDS preventive behavior. European Association of Experimental Social Psychology.

Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (July, 1992). Prototype perceptions as predictors of behavioral intentions: Social accommodation. European Association of Experimental Social Psychology.

Gerrard, M. (1992). Judgment errors in assessing vulnerability to unplanned pregnancy. Invited colloquium. Drake University.

Gerrard, M. (April, 1993). Positive illusions: Their impact on women's health behaviors. Invited address. Iowa Psychological Association Annual Meeting, Des Moines.

Smith, G.E., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (June, 1993). Prototype perception and health risk behaviors in adolescents. APS Annual Convention.

Hedges, T.J., Smith, G.E., Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (June, 1993). AIDS associations: Influence of gender and condom use on cognitive networks. APS Annual Convention.

Madson, L., & Gerrard, M. (June, 1993). Assuming a gender-ambiguous stimulus is male: Moderators and manipulations. APS Annual Convention.

Gerrard, M. (September, 1993). Health and mental health illusions. Invited address. Morningside College.

Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (November, 1993). Prototype perception and perilous behavior: A social psychological model of adolescent health risk. Invited Address. University of Arizona.

Reis-Bergan, M., Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., & Ybema, J.F. (1994, May). Temporal comparison in the elderly. MPA Annual Meeting, Chicago.

Gerrard, M., Reis-Bergan, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (1995, June). Social comparison and coping among elderly women. Biennial Conference on Community Research and Action, Chicago.

Blanton, H., Gibbons, F.X., Conger, K.J., & Gerrard, M. (1995, June). The role of family and peers in the development of prototypes associated with health risks. APS Annual Convention.

Gibbons, F.X. & Gerrard, M. Is social comparison an effective coping strategy? SESP, Washington, DC., 1995.

Blanton, H., Gibbons, F.X., & Gerrard, M. (1995, September). Long-term and short-term reciprocal influences of social comparison style of daily stress and adaptation. SESP Annual Convention, Washington, D.C.

Gibbons, F.X. & Gerrard, M. Is social comparison an effective coping strategy? SESP, Washington, D.C., 1995.

Hessling, R.M., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (1996, May). The interaction of message framing and perceived threat in predicting the effectiveness of health promotion messages. MPA Annual Meeting, Chicago.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Benthin, A.C., Hessling, R.M., & Schmitz, M. (1996, May). The reciprocal nature of adolescent risk behaviors and risk relevant cognitions on drinking shapes their thinking and vice versa. Invited Address. NIDA Rural Drug Abuse Symposium, Ames, IA.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Smith, G.E., Eggleston, T.J., & McCoy, S. (1996, August). The relation between self-esteem and perceived vulnerability. International Congress of Psychology, Monteal.

Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (1996, December). Tracing family influences on adolescent drinking: An analysis of cognitive mediation. Invited Address. NIAAA Conference on Alcohol and the Family: Opportunities for Prevention, Washington, D.C.

Reis-Bergan, M. & Gerrard, M. (1997, May). Attitudes toward sex and retention of contraceptive and AIDS information: Recall and recognition. MPA Annual Meeting, Chicago.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Reis-Bergan, M., Smith, G.E., Eggleston, T., & Boney-McCoy, S. (May, 1997). Perceptions of personal vulnerability and self-esteem: How individuals with high self-esteem maintain their perceptions of invulnerability. APS Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C.

Ouellette, J., Reis-Bergan, M., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (May, 1997). Parents, peers and prototypes: Antecedents of adolescent alcohol expectancies, willingness to drink, alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related life problems. APS Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C.

Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (August, 1997). Health cognitions and sexual risk behavior. Invited address. APA Annual Convention, Chicago.

Gerrard, M. (March, 1998). Esteem-maintenance strategies and health behavior. Invited address. University of California at San Diego.

Gerrard, M. (May, 1998). Individual differences in sexual risk-taking: Contrasting two perspectives. Invited address. Kinsey Institute, Indiana University.

Gerrard, M. (November, 1998). Self-esteem and health risk behavior in adolescents and young adults. Invited address. Drake University.

Gerrard, M. & Gibbons, F.X. (December, 1998). Barriers to understanding risk. Invited address. National Cancer Institute Conference on Cancer Risk Communication.

Gerrard, M. (December, 1998). Self-esteem and perceptions of vulnerability to health risk among adolescents. Invited Address. University of Connecticut.

Gerrard, M. (May, 1999). Risk perceptions: Adolescent unplanned pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. School of Public Policy. Invited address. University of Chicago.

Gerrard, M. (June, 1999). Self-esteem and health risk behavior. Invited address. Primeras Jornadas Valencianas de Psicologia Social Y Organizacional. University of Valencias, Spain.

Reis-Bergan, M., Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., Kent, S.A., & Lane, D.J. (August, 1999). Experience moderates the shift from willingness to intention. APA Annual Meeting, Boston.

Kent, S.A., Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., Reis-Bergan, M., & Lane, D.J. (August, 1999). Social comparison and risk images predicting adolescent smoking and drinking. APA Annual Meeting, Boston.

Lane, D.J., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Reis-Bergan, M., & Kent, S.A. (August, 1999). Do perceptions of vulnerability motivate reductions in drunk driving? APA Annual Meeting, Boston.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., & Reis-Bergan, M. (February, 2000). Alcohol consumption and perceptions of parental approval: A longitudinal study of the reciprocal relation between risk perceptions and risk behavior. Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Nashville, TN.

Gerrard, M. (November, 2000). Neighborhood risk as a moderator of African American parents’ influence on early adolescent substance use. Invited address. Rice University.

Gerrard, M. (June, 2001). Identifying a fundable idea and making a case with pilot data. Invited address. Grant Writing Workshop, Institute for Social and Behavioral Research. Iowa State University.

Gerrard, M. (June, 2001). Antecedents of perceptions of vulnerability in childhood and adolescence. American Psychological Society. Toronto.

Gerrard, M. (June, 2001). Fifth Annual Iowa Health Cognitions Conference (Conference organizer), Tyngsboro, MA.

Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F.X., Reis-Bergan, M., Trudeau, L., & Vande Lune, L. (June, 2001). Health cognitions and adolescent substance use: Inhibitory effects of risk and non-risk prototypes. Fifth Annual Iowa Health Cognitions Conference, Tyngsboro, MA.

 Gerrard, M. (July, 2001). Antecedents and consequences of perceptions of vulnerability in early adolescence. Invited address. European Congress on Psychology, London.

 Gerrard, M. (April, 2002). Do risk perceptions influence adolescents’ risk behaviors? Invited Address. Kentucky Conference on Health Communication, University of Kentucky.

Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F.X. (June, 2002). Antecedents of Risk Perceptions. Invited address. Reducing the Risk: Toward an Integrated Approach. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.

Gibbons, F.X. & Gerrard, M. (September, 2002). Racial discrimination and substance use: A prospective analysis in African American families. Oregon Research Institute, Eugene, OR.

 November 02

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